{
 "slug": "alma",
 "title": "Battle of the Alma",
 "status": "draft",
 "era": "1850–1900",
 "date_text": "20 September 1854 (8 September Old Style)",
 "start": "1854-09-20",
 "end": "1854-09-20",
 "war": "Crimean War",
 "cdb90_war": "CRIMEAN WAR",
 "place": {
  "name": "Heights on the south bank of the River Alma, about 25 km north of Sevastopol, Crimea",
  "lat": 44.831,
  "lon": 33.669,
  "wikidata": "Q913604"
 },
 "lede": "On 20 September 1854 the British, French and Turkish army marching on Sevastopol stormed Menshikov's heights above the Alma in an afternoon. It was the first major battle of the Crimean War, and the allies' failure to follow it up led to a long siege.",
 "result": "Allied victory",
 "result_cdb90": "attacker win",
 "belligerents": [
  {
   "role": "attacker",
   "name": "Allied army: British, French and Ottoman",
   "commanders": [
    "Marshal Jacques Leroy de Saint-Arnaud",
    "Lord Raglan",
    "General Pierre Bosquet",
    "General François Canrobert",
    "Prince Napoléon",
    "Lieutenant-General Sir George Brown",
    "Lieutenant-General Sir George de Lacy Evans",
    "Duke of Cambridge",
    "Major-General Sir Colin Campbell",
    "Suleiman Pasha"
   ],
   "strength": {
    "value": 63000,
    "low": 56500,
    "high": 63000,
    "source": "s3"
   },
   "casualties": {
    "value": 3497,
    "low": 2562,
    "high": 4500,
    "source": "s5"
   }
  },
  {
   "role": "defender",
   "name": "Russian army in the Crimea",
   "commanders": [
    "Prince Alexander Menshikov",
    "General Pyotr Gorchakov",
    "Lieutenant-General Vasily Kiryakov",
    "Lieutenant-General Onufry Kvitsinsky"
   ],
   "strength": {
    "value": 36400,
    "low": 33600,
    "high": 39000,
    "source": "s4"
   },
   "casualties": {
    "value": 5709,
    "low": 3700,
    "high": 5709,
    "source": "s3"
   }
  }
 ],
 "sections": {
  "background": "In 1854 Britain and France, allied with the Ottoman Empire against Russia, sent an expedition to take Sevastopol, the base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. The fleet left Varna on 7 September with no clear landing point, and from 14 September the army came ashore on the west coast of the Crimea north of the city. The British landing was slow and disorderly; many men were sick with cholera, there were no tents, and the cavalry horses struggled in the surf.\n\nThe march south began on 19 September, the French on the coast with the Turks in their midst, the British inland on their left. That day Cossacks met British cavalry on the Bulganak, and Raglan pulled back the Light Brigade when Russian infantry appeared.\n\nPrince Menshikov, commanding in the Crimea, chose to stand on the Alma, the first strong river line north of Sevastopol. The north bank sloped gently; the south bank rose to heights of 300–500 feet. Near the sea a 350-foot cliff, the West Cliff, ran inland; then came the Telegraph Height astride the post road; east of the road the Kourgane Hill, which the British saw as the key to the position, carried two low earthworks, the Great and Lesser Redoubts. The villages of Almatamack, Bourliouk and Tarkhanlar lay along the river.\n\nMenshikov thought the cliffs near the sea too steep to need much guarding. Saint-Arnaud's plan was for the French to turn that flank while the British turned the Russian right, but Raglan would not commit himself; in the event the British shifted towards the centre and made a frontal attack.",
  "forces": "The allies brought about 63,000 men and 128–144 guns. The British, about 26,000 with 60 guns, fought their first battle against a European army in almost forty years. Their only cavalry was the Light Brigade, perhaps 1,000 sabres; the Heavy Brigade had not yet landed. The British infantry carried the Minié rifle and fought in line, against Russian columns.\n\nThe French, about 28,000–30,000 with 68–72 guns, were led by veterans of Algeria such as Bosquet; their Zouave regiments were their best troops. Saint-Arnaud was mortally ill and died nine days after the battle. About 7,000 Turks marched with the French and were put under Bosquet's orders for the day.\n\nMenshikov had some 33,000–39,000 men, about 3,400–3,600 of them cavalry, and between 84 and 120 guns. Gorchakov commanded the right and centre, with Kvitsinsky's 16th Division (the Vladimir, Suzdal, Kazan and Uglich regiments) on the Kourgane Hill; Kiryakov held the left, with the Borodino, Tarutino and Moscow regiments and some militia battalions that Kinglake judges of poor quality. The Moscow regiment had come up after a forced march of more than 65 hours. The Russians fought in heavy battalion columns, and their command was weak: one Russian historian argues that Menshikov had no working staff to deliver and check his orders.",
  "course": "**The approach (to about 1.30 p.m.).** The allies halted about a mile and a half short of the river while Bosquet's column on the right came up. At about one o'clock the advance sounded, the French and British moving forward abreast. Allied warships opened on the Russian left, and at about 1.30 a Russian round-shot landing near Raglan marked the start of the cannonade. Russian skirmishers set fire to Bourliouk and fell back.\n\n**Bosquet on the cliffs (about 2 p.m.).** Bosquet split his column. He led Autemarre's brigade through Almatamack and up an unguarded road between the West Cliff and the Telegraph Height; the Zouaves scrambled straight up the slopes, and the guns followed by road, twelve of them reaching the plateau. Bouat's brigade and the Turks waded the river at its mouth and climbed the cliff, but without artillery they held back from the fighting. Menshikov rushed the Moscow regiment and other troops to face the sea, but too late. Canrobert's division was held up because its track was unfit for guns, and Prince Napoleon's stalled under fire from the Telegraph Height. Kiryakov advanced a column of eight battalions against Canrobert, whose leading troops fell back.\n\n**The British frontal attack (about 2.45 to 3.30 p.m.).** The British lay under artillery fire for over an hour before Raglan, at about 2.45 to 3, ordered the infantry forward. Evans's 2nd Division pushed past burning Bourliouk towards the bridge. Brown's Light Division advanced at an angle, crowded into the 2nd, and lost its formation in the vineyards and the river. Codrington led the mob that gathered under the far bank straight up the Kourgane Hill into the Great Redoubt, whose guns were being dragged away; two were taken. Fresh Russian columns, the Vladimir among them, counter-attacked, unauthorised calls to retire were sounded, and the Light Division fell back down the slope, sweeping the Scots Fusilier Guards back with it.\n\n**Raglan on the knoll.** Raglan had meanwhile ridden ahead of his troops across the river and onto an unoccupied knoll in the middle of the Russian position, from which he could see the Russian line and reserves in profile. He called for guns; two of Turner's battery were hauled up, enfiladed the Russian batteries by the post road and forced them to limber up. Evans, with England's guns, was then able to push up past the road.\n\n**The Guards and Highlanders (about 3.30 to 4.30 p.m.).** The Grenadier and Coldstream Guards advanced in line, halting to fire Minié volleys into the Russian columns, and retook the Great Redoubt; Kvitsinsky was wounded. To their left Campbell's Highland Brigade came on in echelon, the 42nd leading, then the 93rd and 79th, and broke the Russian columns on the eastern slopes. On the Telegraph Height the French finally pushed back Kiryakov's thinned battalions. By about 4.30 the Russians were retreating towards the Katcha, their guns hurried away, under allied artillery fire. The French took Menshikov's abandoned carriage.",
  "aftermath": "The allies lost about 2,600–4,500 men, the British about 2,000 of them, the French between Raglan's estimate of 560 and their own official 1,339. The Russians lost about 5,700 by their own return, more than half of them in the four regiments that held the Kourgane Hill. The British needed two days to clear their wounded, using commissariat carts for want of ambulances, and some 1,600 wounded waited days to be shipped to Scutari.\n\nThere was no pursuit. Lucan wanted to send the Light Brigade after the Russians but Raglan held it back, wary of the large Russian cavalry force still in hand. Raglan proposed pressing on with England's fresh 3rd Division, the cavalry and horse artillery and some French troops; the French replied that any further advance that day was impossible, since they had to go back for the packs they had left north of the river. Instead of marching straight on, the allies went round Sevastopol to besiege it from the south, giving the Russians weeks to fortify it.\n\nWhether the Alma was a missed chance to take Sevastopol is still argued. Some writers say a prompt advance would have found the city's land side almost undefended; others point out that the Russian retreat was not the rout it seemed, and that tired, sick troops without cavalry were in no state to storm a city. Paris named the Pont de l'Alma after the battle, and Alma became a place and pub name across Britain and the empire.",
  "wargaming": "The Alma is a big set-piece assault on a prepared position, best played at brigade level with a base or unit per battalion; one side of the table, or the Kourgane Hill alone, makes a good divisional game. The river is the key feature: shallow but with steep banks, vineyards and burning villages that break up formations, so a crossing should cost order and time as well as casualties.\n\nThe allied player has the numbers and the Minié rifle; the Russian has the heights, the redoubts and a long field of fire. The interest is in command and timing. Bosquet's climb makes a separate flanking problem, with guns that may or may not make it up. The British attack should suffer from vague orders, a slow First Division and the risk of unauthorised retirements, while the Russian columns must be handled carefully under rifle fire.\n\nRaglan's knoll is a wonderful special rule: a high-risk, high-reward chance to place guns in the enemy's flank. Good what-ifs: Menshikov guarding the West Cliff properly; the Russian cavalry striking the open British left; the Light Division supported in time; or the allies pursuing to the Katcha and beyond."
 },
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 "sources": [
  {
   "id": "s1",
   "title": "Battle of the Alma (Wikipedia)",
   "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alma",
   "kind": "web"
  },
  {
   "id": "s2",
   "title": "Battle of the Alma (BritishBattles.com)",
   "url": "https://www.britishbattles.com/crimean-war/battle-of-the-alma/",
   "kind": "web"
  },
  {
   "id": "s3",
   "title": "A. W. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea, vol. II: the Battle of the Alma (Blackwood; archive.org scan of a later edition)",
   "url": "https://archive.org/details/kinglake-the-invasion-of-the-crimea-its-origin-and-an-account-of-its-progress-do_20220227",
   "kind": "book"
  },
  {
   "id": "s4",
   "title": "Battle of the Alma, 20 September 1854 (HistoryOfWar.org)",
   "url": "https://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_alma.html",
   "kind": "web"
  },
  {
   "id": "s5",
   "title": "Сражение на реке Альме (Russian Wikipedia; cites Tarle, Daniels, Chennyk)",
   "url": "https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Сражение_на_реке_Альме",
   "kind": "web"
  },
  {
   "id": "s6",
   "title": "Marjie Bloy, The Crimean War: the Alma and after (The Victorian Web)",
   "url": "https://victorianweb.org/victorian/history/crimea/blunder2.html",
   "kind": "web"
  },
  {
   "id": "s7",
   "title": "Armand-Jacques Leroy de Saint-Arnaud (Wikipedia)",
   "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand-Jacques_Leroy_de_Saint-Arnaud",
   "kind": "web"
  },
  {
   "id": "s8",
   "title": "Orlando Figes, The Crimean War: A History (Allen Lane, 2010); not read, cited via s1",
   "url": null,
   "kind": "book"
  },
  {
   "id": "s9",
   "title": "W. H. Russell, The British Expedition to the Crimea (Routledge, 1858); not read, cited via s1",
   "url": null,
   "kind": "book"
  },
  {
   "id": "s10",
   "title": "C. B. Norman, Battle Honours of the British Army (John Murray, 1911); not read, cited via s1",
   "url": null,
   "kind": "book"
  },
  {
   "id": "s11",
   "title": "E. de Todleben, Défense de Sébastopol (St Petersburg, 1863); not read, cited via s3",
   "url": null,
   "kind": "book"
  },
  {
   "id": "s12",
   "title": "E. V. Tarle, Крымская война (The Crimean War, 1941–43); not read, cited via s5",
   "url": null,
   "kind": "book"
  }
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    "work_id": "gutenberg:46989",
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