{
 "slug": "pyramids",
 "title": "Battle of the Pyramids",
 "status": "draft",
 "era": "1775–1815",
 "date_text": "21 July 1798",
 "start": "1798-07-21",
 "end": "1798-07-21",
 "war": "French Revolutionary Wars",
 "cdb90_war": "WAR OF THE FIRST COALITION",
 "place": {
  "name": "Embabeh (Imbaba), on the west bank of the Nile opposite Cairo and Bulaq, about 15 km from the pyramids of Giza, Egypt",
  "lat": 30.0833,
  "lon": 31.2,
  "wikidata": "Q332543"
 },
 "lede": "On 21 July 1798, at Embabeh on the Nile opposite Cairo, Bonaparte's divisional squares broke the charge of Murad Bey's Mamluk cavalry and stormed his entrenched camp. Cairo fell three days later, and centuries of Mamluk power in Egypt began to end.",
 "result": "Decisive French victory",
 "result_cdb90": "attacker win",
 "belligerents": [
  {
   "role": "attacker",
   "name": "French Armée d'Orient",
   "commanders": [
    "General Napoleon Bonaparte",
    "General Louis Desaix",
    "General Jean-Louis-Ébénézer Reynier",
    "General Charles Dugua (Kléber's division)",
    "General Honoré Vial (Menou's division)",
    "General Louis André Bon"
   ],
   "strength": {
    "value": 25000,
    "low": 20000,
    "high": 25000,
    "source": "s1"
   },
   "casualties": {
    "value": 289,
    "low": 40,
    "high": 300,
    "source": "s1"
   }
  },
  {
   "role": "defender",
   "name": "Mamluk army of Murad Bey, with Ottoman, Albanian, Bedouin and fellahin auxiliaries (Ibrahim Bey's army on the east bank)",
   "commanders": [
    "Murad Bey",
    "Ibrahim Bey (east bank, at Bulaq)",
    "Ayyub Bey, the defterdar (killed)",
    "Ali Pasha and Nassouh Pasha (Ottoman officers at the Embabeh works)"
   ],
   "strength": {
    "value": 21000,
    "low": 12500,
    "high": 60000,
    "source": "s1"
   },
   "casualties": {
    "value": 10000,
    "low": 2000,
    "high": 10000,
    "source": "s5"
   }
  }
 ],
 "sections": {
  "background": "In 1798 the French Directory let Bonaparte take an army to Egypt. The aims were a base for French power in the eastern Mediterranean, the wealth Egypt was supposed to hold and, in Bonaparte's mind, a later threat to British India. Egypt belonged in name to the Ottoman Empire, but the real rulers were the Mamluk beys, above all Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey. Bonaparte presented his war as one against the Mamluks alone. His Arabic proclamation, which al-Jabarti copied into his chronicle, asked that if Egypt was the Mamluks' farm, they show the lease God had given them.\n\nThe fleet reached Alexandria on 1 July and the city fell at once. The march up the Nile to Cairo, about 240 km, brought heat, thirst, sandstorms and Bedouin raids, and the army came close to mutiny. On 13 July at Shubra Khit the squares drove off Murad's first attempt to stop them and his flagship blew up on the river; al-Jabarti calls it a mere skirmish.\n\nMurad fell back on Cairo. On the west bank he had entrenchments dug from the village of Embabeh, opposite Bulaq, to Bashtil, and moored the large boats he had built at Giza along the bank with soldiers and guns. Ibrahim Bey, the Ottoman pasha and the ulema decided to fortify the east bank from Bulaq to Shubra, and almost the whole male population of Cairo went out to the Bulaq lines. Al-Jabarti is scathing about what the beys did not do: they sent no spies, posted no advance guard and despised the enemy. Nobody even knew which bank the French were marching on. They came down the west bank alone, straight at Embabeh.",
  "forces": "The Armée d'Orient brought five infantry divisions to Embabeh: Desaix's, Reynier's, Kléber's under Dugua (Kléber had been wounded at Alexandria), Menou's under Vial, and Bon's. They were hungry and worn out: Berthier says that for fifteen days they had lived on a few vegetables without bread. Against the Mamluk horse they fought in divisional squares, really hollow rectangles, six ranks deep on the front and rear faces and three on the flanks, with guns at the corners and the cavalry and baggage inside. The squares advanced in echelon, so that each covered its neighbour with flanking fire.\n\nMurad's striking force was his Mamluks: perhaps 6,000 of them by Berthier's count, on fine Arab horses richly harnessed and wearing brilliant armour, some with their purses full of gold. Their tactics were those of individual horsemen charging home, with little experience of modern European infantry. Behind them stood a mixed infantry: fellahin militia, janissaries, Albanians who had come up from Damietta, and Bedouin from Beheira, Giza and Upper Egypt. The Embabeh lines had between 30 and 60 guns depending on the source, many of them old and on fixed carriages, plus the gunboats moored along the bank. Ibrahim Bey's army, with the Ottoman pasha, stood behind the Bulaq lines on the east bank, with too few boats to cross.",
  "course": "**The approach, 02.00–14.00.** The French left Umm Dinar at two in the morning. At dawn Desaix's division, leading, met about 600 Mamluks and Arab horsemen, who fell back from village to village. By two in the afternoon the army was about three-quarters of a league from Embabeh. The men were exhausted in the heat and Bonaparte called a halt. Berthier says the Mamluk horse, glittering with arms, began forming in the plain ahead of the French right, with the pyramids far off behind them.\n\n**Deployment.** Bonaparte formed the divisions in echelon from the right: Desaix, Reynier, Dugua, Vial and Bon, with Bon's left on the Nile. Desaix and Reynier were to swing round between Giza and Embabeh to cut Murad's road to Upper Egypt. Murad's right rested on the Embabeh entrenchments by the river, his left on Bashtil, with the Mamluk cavalry between them.\n\n**The great charge, about 15.30.** Before the line could move, the Mamluks charged Desaix and Reynier. World History Encyclopedia says a palm grove had loosened Desaix's square, and it re-formed just in time. The squares held their fire until canister and musket range. Berthier calls them walls of fire and ramparts of bayonets. Al-Jabarti, who puts the charge at noon near Bashtil, says the Egyptians threw themselves on the French with fury and were met by continuous volleys. The defterdar Ayyub Bey and many Mamluks were killed. Bonaparte says the broken Mamluks fled to their left under the fire of a battalion of carabiniers, and Desaix pursued them back towards the entrenchments.\n\n**The storm of Embabeh.** On the left, Bon's and Menou's divisions under Vial, with Dugua in support, advanced at the charge on the village. Bonaparte formed assault columns from the first and third battalions of each half-brigade, with the second and fourth left in square three deep to cover them. Generals Rampon and Marmont took two battalions round the village and used a deep ditch running to the Nile to hide them from the cavalry. The defenders unmasked about forty poor guns, but the columns went in before they could reload and carried the works with the bayonet. Al-Jabarti adds that Murad's sailors fought, and that Albanians landed from boats to join the infantry behind the entrenchments. A Mamluk charge against Bon's columns broke on the bayonets. Berthier says about 1,500 Mamluks and as many fellahin, cut off by Rampon and Marmont, refused to surrender and were killed or drowned in the Nile.\n\n**The east bank.** Ibrahim's army heard the guns and watched. Al-Jabarti describes the men shouting prayers until wiser heads told them the Prophet's companions had fought with the sword, not with cries. A few emirs crossed by boat, but there were too few boats and the rout was complete before they landed. A strong wind drove sand from the French side into the Egyptians' faces. Al-Jabarti gives the main fight three-quarters of an hour.\n\n**Rout, to about 18.00.** Murad, wounded in the cheek, rode to his palace at Giza, stayed a quarter of an hour, then made for Upper Egypt with perhaps 3,000 Mamluks. The French pursued to Giza, Berthier says until six in the evening, after nineteen hours of marching and fighting. They took about forty guns, 400 camels and the Mamluk baggage. That night Murad's sailors burned the boats off Embabeh, and Murad burned his own grounded vessel. In Cairo people saw the flames and believed Giza and Bulaq were on fire.",
  "aftermath": "French losses were trivial, from about 40 to about 300 killed and wounded depending on the source. Murad's army lost anything from 2,000 to 10,000 men, many of them drowned in the Nile. Al-Jabarti describes the ground at Embabeh strewn with bodies, clothes and weapons. Ibrahim Bey el-Wali, Ibrahim's son-in-law, drowned in the river.\n\nThe defeat emptied Cairo. Before sunset Ibrahim Bey, the pasha and the emirs left for Adliya, and through the night the people fled after them on foot or on whatever animals they could buy at double the price. Bedouin and villagers outside the gates robbed the fugitives. The notables came to Bonaparte at Giza on 22 July to submit, and he entered the city on 24 July. Ibrahim retreated to Syria and was beaten at Salahieh on 11 August. Murad held out in Upper Egypt, fighting a guerrilla war against Desaix's pursuit until 1799. Ten days after the battle Nelson destroyed the French fleet at Aboukir Bay, cutting the army off from France.\n\nBonaparte named the battle after the distant pyramids, which sounded grander than Embabeh. The line 'forty centuries look down upon you' is usually placed in his address before the battle. It is first found in the St Helena memoirs published by Gourgaud in 1823, and French historians treat it as probably apocryphal. Berthier's account of 1800 says only that the pyramids had stood for thirty centuries. The paintings of Gros and Lejeune fixed the battle in the imperial legend.",
  "wargaming": "The Pyramids is a lopsided battle that rewards a clever Mamluk player. At grand-tactical scale, with a division or half-division square as a unit and 15-minute turns, five French squares and a mass of Mamluk horse fit a table covering about 8 km from Bashtil to the Nile. A larger battalion-level game can concentrate on the storm of Embabeh: Bon and Vial's columns, Rampon and Marmont's flanking move along the ditch, the entrenchments, the guns and the boats.\n\nThe key terrain is the Embabeh entrenchments on the river, the village of Bashtil on the desert flank, the palm groves that could disorder a square, and the Nile itself, which trapped the garrison. Give the French one real constraint: they had been marching since two in the morning and were halted and still forming when the charge came. A Mamluk attack that catches a square in movement is the only realistic route to an upset.\n\nRate the Mamluks as superb but brittle cavalry. The infantry in Embabeh should be uneven: Albanians and janissaries steadier than the fellahin.\n\nThe what-ifs: Murad charging an hour earlier, before Desaix's square re-formed in the palm grove; Ibrahim Bey with enough boats to bring the east-bank army across; a Mamluk advance guard that met the French on the march, as al-Jabarti thought they should have done; or a night attack on an army that had not slept."
 },
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   "caption": "Napoleon's campaign in Egypt, 1798: Alexandria, Shubra Kheit, Embabeh, Cairo and the pyramids, from an early twentieth-century historical atlas.",
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  {
   "id": "s1",
   "title": "Battle of the Pyramids (Wikipedia)",
   "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Pyramids",
   "kind": "web"
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  {
   "id": "s2",
   "title": "Bonaparte's despatches from Egypt (Part I), Fondation Napoléon, translated from Pièces diverses et correspondance relatives aux opérations de l'armée d'Orient en Égypte (Paris, Baudouin, an IX), pp. 71–77",
   "url": "https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/bonapartes-despatches-from-egypt-part-i",
   "kind": "primary"
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  {
   "id": "s3",
   "title": "Louis-Alexandre Berthier, Relation des campagnes du général Bonaparte en Égypte et en Syrie (Milan edition, an VIII)",
   "url": "https://archive.org/details/relationdescampa00bertuoft",
   "kind": "primary"
  },
  {
   "id": "s4",
   "title": "'Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, Merveilles biographiques et historiques, ou Chroniques, tome VI, trans. Chefik Mansour Bey et al. (Cairo, Imprimerie nationale, 1888–96), year 1213, pp. 12–20",
   "url": "https://archive.org/details/merveillesbiogra06jaba",
   "kind": "primary"
  },
  {
   "id": "s5",
   "title": "Harrison W. Mark, 'Battle of the Pyramids', World History Encyclopedia (2023)",
   "url": "https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2238/",
   "kind": "web"
  },
  {
   "id": "s6",
   "title": "Bataille des Pyramides (French Wikipedia)",
   "url": "https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataille_des_Pyramides",
   "kind": "web"
  },
  {
   "id": "s7",
   "title": "Didier Grau and Lionel A. Bouchon, 'Battle of the Pyramids (Battle of Embabeh)', Napoleon & Empire",
   "url": "https://napoleon-empire.org/en/battles/pyramids.php",
   "kind": "web"
  },
  {
   "id": "s8",
   "title": "Shannon Selin, 'Napoleon at the Pyramids: Myth versus Fact' (2017)",
   "url": "https://shannonselin.com/2017/07/napoleon-pyramids/",
   "kind": "web"
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